Black Holes

Black holes are objects so dense that it is not possible for even light to escape their gravity. There are two main processes continuously going on in massive stars. 1. Nuclear fusion: This process takes place in the stars which tends to blow the star's hydrogen outward from the star's center. 2. Gravitation: This process tends to pull all hydrogen back in the direction it had come. In general, these two processes balance one another until the entire star's hydrogen is exhausted, allowing gravitation to take over and once gravitation dominates, and the star becomes unstable and starts to collapse.Once the star starts to collapse, it does not stop, and the star (and ultimately its atoms) will cave inward upon itself, resulting in the formation of a black hole (Hewitt, 1992). Where is the nearest black hole? The closest known black holes are stellar mass black holes in the galaxy. These black holes have so far only been seen when they are in close contact with another star which is orb iting around them. When jets are produced the systems are known as microquasars and can be observed at many wavelengths, but usually are most distinctive in X-rays (Masters, 2002). What happens if you fall into a black hole?Just because nothing can travel faster than light, nothing can escape from inside a black hole. If a person jumps into a black hole, they won't be able to see anything within the event horizon. The person will see strange optical distortions of the sky around him from all the bending of light that goes on. But as soon as the person falls through, they are doomed. They will die. References Hewitt, Paul G. (1992) Conceptual Physics. 2nd ed. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. Masters, K. (2002) Where is the nearest black hole? Curious About Astronomy? Retrieved on 9 November 2007 from http://curious. astro. cornell. edu

Zoecon Case Recommendation

The Problem(s). Does the South Delaware Coors distributorship offer sufficient investment potential given Mr. Brownlow’s current business and personal situation? Recommendation(s). Given Mr. Brownlow’s current business and personal situation operating the South Delaware Coors, Inc. distribution does offer sufficient investment potential. The following explanation is presented to evaluate the decision factors in the case. Profit Potential. From the studies conducted by Manson and Associates the potential profit can be estimated.The primary objective was to determine the investment potential of the distribution of Coors. As shown in Table 1, in order to break even, the South Delaware Coors distribution would need to sell $247,272 or 224,793 gallons to break even. This amount is not out of reach when calculating the market potential. The market potential calculated in Table 2. The table uses 2002 estimates to approximate the first full year of production for the South Dela ware Coors distribution. When total sale is multiplied with the wholesale price per gallon, the potential market for the distribution is 415,128 gallons.This potential market gallons sold is higher than the break even amount by 185%, creating a potential profit of $456,641. The industry demand also shows market potential by using the tax approach from Table E of the Manson study. The tax approach shown in Table 3 provides a look into the industry demand of beer in Delaware, where the average revenue of a wholesaler in 1997 was $799,944. Subtracted by the break-even cost, the tax approach shows revenue of $799,944 from the average revenue of a wholesaler.Comparing the break-even cost with the 1998 wholesaler revenue the profit increases 5. 8%, with estimated projected profit of $950,111 in 2002. Market share is shown in table 4. The market shares A, B and C are reflective of the good, better, best scenarios respectively. Even with the worst market share of 436,588. 2 gallons, it stil l surpasses the break even gallons by nearly double. The best market share scenario almost triples the breakeven point at 677,647. 7 gallons. Market and Competitive Environments.Since 1873, Coors has evolved into the fourth largest seller of beer in the United States, working on the philosophy of â€Å"hard work, saving money, devotion to the quality of the product, caring about the environment, and giving people something to believing in. † The impact of Coors on the competitive environments can be seen in the consumer and retailer questionnaire results from the Manson and Associate studies. Study G shows a large consumer following of Coors products with 70% of consumers with a â€Å"certainly will† intention to buy Coors. Similarly the retailer questionnaire, study H, showed 88. % of retailers â€Å"certainly will† sell Coors products. Public Acceptance. Coors’ history stands to show the acceptance in the quality of product Coors offers to their consume rs for over 140 years. Similarly, as with the market and competitive environment, 70% of consumers have the intention to buy Coors’ products. With this amount of anticipation from the consumers, there will most certainly be a spiked period of verbal advertisements from satisfied consumers. This type of advertisement is more powerful than any other advertisement because new consumers are more willing to try a new product when requested by someone they know.

The National Coalition Against the Death Penalty

The death penalty has been a fairly contentious issue in the United States since 1930 when statistics first began to be regularly collected. By the late 1960s, an unofficial moratorium took place due to mounting opposition to the law that was authorized in all but 10 states. In 1972, the Supreme Court struck down the ‘arbitrary and capricious' state and federal death penalty laws (History of the Death Penalty, â€Å"Death Penalty† & â€Å"Moratorium†). However, the 1976 rulings re-imposing the capital punishment brought to the fore the gravity of the issue for the American public. The Supreme Court decision bringing back the controversial law was met with concerted efforts by those who vigorously oppose death penalty. One entity that perhaps best symbolizes opposition to its reinstatement is the National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty (NCADP), a coalition organization formed shortly after the Supreme Court ruling. The NCADP has, since its formation in 1976, been the only national organization with a full staff that is devoted exclusively to the abolishment of the capital punishment. Its work includes the providing of information and public policy advocates and the mobilization of, and support for, individuals and institutions sharing the unconditional rejection of the death penalty (National Coalition  ¶ 1). NCADP Mission and Goals The main argument of the NDADP in its stand against the death penalty is the belief that the ultimate punishment equates to the devaluation of all human life. With the execution of the capital offender, the organization believes that the spiritual transformation intrinsic to every human being is denied. The organization also argues three other critical concerns, namely: the irrevocability of the capital punishment within a dishearteningly fallible judicial system; the law's race and class bias against the poor and racial minorities, and the death penalty's intrinsic violation of our most basic human rights. The National Coalition for the Abolition of the Death Penalty, based in Washington D.C., boasts of a 30-year history of organizing opposition to the U.S. death penalty (Hogan & Hartson Announcements). One of the more prominent heads of NCADP has been Sister Helen Prejean CSJ, a Roman Catholic nun of the Sisters of St. Joseph of Medaille. Serving the organization from 1993 to 1995, Prejean became a crusader against the death penalty following her ministering and witnessing many executions beginning with that of Louisiana convicted murderer Elmo Patrick Sonnier. Her autobiographical account of the relationship she made with Sonnier became the basis for the film and opera Dead Man Walking. (Helen Prejean  ¶ 1-4). The mission of the National Coalition Against the Death Penalty is organized around the four central mission areas of legislative advocacy, grassroots advocacy, media advocacy and human rights advocacy. Believing that the abolition of the capital punishment in the United States can be achieved using a multi-faceted approach, the NCADP spells out its four-core mission as follows: Legislative Advocacy – cooperating with policy-makers and their constituents to adopt legislation that opposes the death penalty at the local, state, as well as national level. Media Advocacy – using mainly local and state media to broaden the public criticism of the capital punishment. Grassroots Advocacy – providing assistance to NCADP affiliates in organizing activities that oppose the death penalty and in reaching out to American communities to take a stand against the death penalty. Human Rights Advocacy – highlighting the capital punishment as a violation of human rights and   Ã‚  Ã‚   working to gain the support of the world in abolishing the death penalty in the United States. (National Coalition â€Å"Our Focus†). NCADP Strategy and Tactics The organization conducts its campaign against capital punishment using its four non-violent advocacy methods at the local, state and national levels. (National Coalition, Wikipedia  ¶ 2). The use of information dissemination is an important tool of the NCADP towards the goal of abolishing death penalty in the United States. Primarily using the local media, which it believes to be the greater news source of the American public, NCADP works to inform about facts and figures that strengthen the call against capital punishment. Through other media outlets including its website www.ncadp.org and the national media, it presents many eye-opening if not disturbing data on the modern implementation of death penalty in the country. The death penalty related information the NCADP provides is essentially statistics-based, perhaps in the effort to be scientific and less incontrovertible. It extensively collects and presents telling information such as: – 95 percent of the nearly 4,000 death convicts are so poor that they were unable to hire a private attorney. – African Americans comprise 42% of those currently on death row despite the fact that they make up a mere 12% of the total population. – More than 60% of those convicted to die for childhood offenses since the 1976 re-imposition have either been African Americans or Latinos (National Coalition, Fact Sheet).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Being a coalition organization, the NCADP strategy in seeking the legal abolition of death penalty includes forging linkages with state and local, national and international affiliates.   It has local affiliates in Alabama, Arizona and California and its national affiliates include Amnesty International, USA Program   to Abolish the Death Penalty. The NCADP also counts international affiliates from the United Kingdom (Death Penalty UK Death Row: Reprieve UK), Germany (German Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty (GCADP), France (Coalition for Truth and Justice; Ensemble contre la peine de mort) and Botswana (The Botswana Centre for Human Rights). The NCADP also list as an ally the Missourians Against State Killing organization (National Coalition â€Å"Affiliates†). Successes and Failures In evaluating its success or failure, many factors can be used to gauge the NCADP. Organization- and support-wise, America's leading financial evaluator of independent charities, Charity Navigator, shows a successful picture of the NCADP. The National Coalition for the Abolition of the Death Penalty is considered a charity organization and its continued existence as the largest in its advocacy reflects the considerable support the American public has given it. No less than Charity Navigator gives it a thumbs up for financial health. Moreover, Charity Navigator has for the last three years given NCADP a consistent four-star overall rating (60++ percent from 2003-2005). Rating the coalition three stars for efficiency and four stars for capacity, Charity Navigator gives NCADP the highest overall peer rating along with the A.J. Muste Memorial Institute. (Charity Navigator â€Å"Rating,† â€Å"Peer Analysis†). In terms of the success of its mission of abolishing the capital punishment, the milestones in the collective efforts of all anti-death penalty advocates can be considered as success for the coalition organization itself. The NCADP recognizes the 2003 commutation for over 150 death convicts—the largest in modern American history—by Illinois Gov. George Ryan as   ‘a turning point in the debate over capital punishment' in the country (NCADP Welcomes  ¶ 1 & 3). A most recent development is the 2005 Supreme Court in Roper V. Simmons ruling against the imposition of the death penalty for those under 18 years of age at the time of the crime. Another good news came in 2004 when the high court of New York declared death penalty unconstitutional. In terms of failures, the most obvious proof that NCADP has not met its goal is the fact that the capital punishment still exists as legal over more of the United States. Specific legislations have also strengthened death penalty as when President Bill Clinton signed two anti-terrorism laws in 1994 and 1996 that expanded federal death penalty and restricted federal court reviews, respectively (Information Center â€Å"Timeline†). However, judging by public support for and against the death penalty based on protracted Gallup Poll surveys, it would seem that the efforts of the anti-death penalty advocates—including the NCADP's media advocacy—appear to be finally paying off. From the 1970s when the organization was formed until 1994, a great majority of Americans favored the death penalty over life imprisonment as penalty for murder. From 1994 to 1997, however, the number of Americans favoring life imprisonment instead has grown steadily. As of May 2004, even after the September 11 attacks, the number of those who favor death penalty was only marginally higher than those who go for life imprisonment (Information Center â€Å"Public Support†). NCADP has a charity privacy policy that requires the donor to inform the charity to remove his or her name and other contact information from the mailing lists sold, traded or shared. Current leadership of the NCADP has Diann Rust-Tierney as Executive Director and Jason Zanon as the Interim Executive Director (Charity Navigator â€Å"Donor Privacy Policy† ; â€Å"Leadership†). Works Cited Charity Navigator. Charity Rating: National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty. Charity Navigator website.;http://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm/bay/search.summary/orgid/7734.htm;. Death Penalty Information Center. Part II: History of the Death Penalty. DPIC website. 19 Dec. 2006;http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=15;did=411;. â€Å"Helen Prejean.† Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 11 Dec 2006, 21:42 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 19 Dec 2006 ;http://en.wikipedia.org /w/index.php?title=Helen_Prejean;oldid=93663475;. History of the Death Penalty ; Recent Developments. University of Alaska Anchorage Justice Center. Updated 2 May 2005. ;http://justice.uaa.alaska.edu/ death/history.html#unitedstates;. Hogan ; Hartson. Announcements. Hogan ; Hartson website. 19 Dec. 20016 ;http://www.hhlaw.com/newsstand/detail.aspx?news=686;. National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty. About the NCADP. NCADP website. 19 Dec. 2006 ;http://www.ncadp.org/about_us.html;. National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty. Affiliate Links. NCADP website. 19 Dec. 2006 ;http://ncadp.org/affiliate_links.html;. National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty. Fact Sheet: The Death Penalty and Racial Bias. NCADP website. 19 Dec. 2006. ;http://www.ncadp.org/fact_sheet2.html;. â€Å"National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty.† Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 16 Oct 2006, 22:32 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 19 Dec 2006 ;http://en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php?title=National_Coalition_to_Abolish_the_Death_Penalty;oldid=81876029;. NCADP Welcomes Largest Commutation Of Death Sentences In Modern U.S. History. 11 Jan. 2003. Initiative gegen die Todesstrafe website.19 Dec. 2006 ;http://www.initiative- gegen-die-todesstrafe.de/ncadp.htm;. ; ; ; ; ;

The Relative Advantages And Disadvantages of Pull-out vs Research Paper

The Relative Advantages And Disadvantages of Pull-out vs Classroom-based Communication Intervention - Research Paper Example o do so the following objectives were pursued during the course of the study: What are the research based evidences favoring either of the classroom or pull out interventions? Evaluation of the evidences available Critical analysis of the evidences to answer the fundamental question of which of the two interventions, i.e. of classroom based and pull out interventions, are more effective. B. Overview The process of inclusion forming the basis of classroom-based interventions can be traced back to 1950s when parents of children with disabilities started a movement leading to implementation of The Education All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (PL 94-142), rendering mandatory free and appropriate education in the least restrictive environment for all children, regardless of disability. Consequently, resource rooms and self-contained classrooms for children with disabilities were included in schools. PL 94-142 was further updated in 1991 by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (Schooling et al., 2010). Despite the legislations and provision favoring inclusion, the consensus in favor of either of the intervention strategies is lacking. Proponents of classroom based intervention argue that inclusion simulates and therefore prepares the child for the real world, lack of seclusion and discrimination leads to enhancement of self esteem, it enhances social interaction and hence mutual bonding among regular and special needs children, and can also take advantage of peer based instructional programmes (DuPaul, 1998). Contrary to this, several concerns have been voiced for the efficacy of classroom based interventions. The lack of individualized instructions and adaptations by teachers for special children in regular classrooms as advised in PL94-142 has been the... The basic research strategy includes selection of topic, a research design appropriate for data collection, data collection and analysis, and finding answer to the research question on the basis of data. Nature of research designs that can be considered for providing evidences can be classified into two basic categories: descriptive and experimental. While descriptive research is appropriate for description of a process; experimental design is suitable for investigation of cause effect relationship. Thus the research strategy that are most rigorous with reference to their design and hence are considered to provide most important evidences are those that involve an experimental, quasi experimental or regression discontinuity design. This report makes a conclusion that classrooms and pull-out; both interventions have been and should be discussed in context to the special needs child; giving primary consideration to the goal of education â€Å"to promote learning and life skills for young people and adults†. Putting a child in either of these settings is as advantageous as it is disadvantageous. A collaborative learning model, where the child can be benefitted from both of these and protected from the shortcomings of both of these settings would be an appropriate and practical approach for education of special needs child, which is being practiced in form of mainstreaming. Mainstreaming requires the student to be taken out of a general education classroom to receive special education services for topic areas that they need additional support.

Advantages and disadvantages of E-commerce to consumers (B2C) Essay

Advantages and disadvantages of E-commerce to consumers (B2C) - Essay Example However, reputable websites have installed the safeguards to protect their consumers from all concerns Encryption and decryption system for authentication of users, and close working with cybercrime handling companies. They have installed premium antivirus and firewalls (Parsons and Oja, 2011). Consumer can access the online system and gets a complete information about products, saves time and cost. Consumers can compare the prices of different products and select the best company offering quality products at a low cost (Joseph, 2012). Consumers feel difficulty in inspecting the some of items like food items, jewellery and antique etc. from remote locations. Most disadvantage of E-Commerce is the rapid expansion of the underlying technologies (Parsons and Oja, 2011). Cultural environment of consumers has been changed through the use of E-Commerce. Consumers have overcome their cultural and native-environment. Because consumers’ trust has been explored through the online system. Advanced system have reduced the mistrust of consumers regardless of their cultures, such as Amazon.com, Ebay etc. (Ong, 2013). Many E-Commerce websites have legal and cultural issues for conducting their business. Most of the consumers fear about using their credit cards and sending the numbers over the internet. Other consumers show their resistance in changes and feel uncomfortable when they look merchandise on the computers’ screens (Joseph, 2012). Consumers can expand their choice of products in order to buy products at any time from anyplace. Consumers can customize products to meet their personal benefits. transparency in the E-Commerce has resulted in to an intensive competition that has lowered the products’ prices for consumers (Azadi, 2011). Unlike physical shopping from mortar and brick store where customers can talk to service providers, E-Commerce does not provide such as platform to customers. Much of services provided by e-commerce involve the

The Asthma Trap Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Asthma Trap - Essay Example The cause of asthma is not known but there are a few factors or social forces that can safely be said are the major causes of asthma. Genetic factor is one of the most common factors that say that it is hereditary and runs in the family. Next is the environmental factor that suggests that pollen, house dust mites, animal dander and tobacco smoke if present in the environment are allergens that trigger asthma. Irritants in the workplace like chemicals, dust, gases etc are major causes of asthma in adults that are due to the occupation which gives exposure to such allergens as in the paint factory or where dealing with raw cotton is done etc. A healthy lifestyle is very important as if dietary habits are not correct then asthma is likely to happen due to increased intake of processed foods and high use of salt. Less exercise and leading a very sedentary life is also one of the causes as reduced exercise means less stretching of the airways due to which abnormal contraction is observed even upon exposure to the minor irritants. Asthma is related to multiple factors which are beyond patients' control. Asthma has become the most common chronic illness among children in USA, affecting some 6 million kids, and its prevalence is growing at a rate that some public health experts find alarming. Since 1982, according to the National Center for Health Statistics, the number of asthma sufferers in the United States has doubled. Sara Corbett Like any other disease asthma too burdens the patients and their families both emotionally and financially. Particularly asthma in children takes a toll on the entire family as parents miss work to care for their children and struggle to pay hospital bills, children's grades fall off as absenteeism from school increases hence lower productivity at work. Patients dependent on inhalers have to carry it with them all the time and using it in public makes them conscious and socially misfit and some patients due to this often go into social recluse. Asthma burdens the patient financially as well. According to a study childhood asthma costs the nation $3.2 billion annually in health care expenses also the constant fear of a severe attack and the fear of death is always associated with asthma. According to the National Institutes of Health, more than 5,000 Americans die this way every year. Sara Corbett My brother is asthmatic and I personally have seen him going into social hermit and avoiding social gatherings because of the fear of asthma attacks or public usage of inhalers when suffering shortness of breath. As a child he felt chained while playing with kids his age who freely used to bike or used to indulge in strenuous activities as my brother took every step very cautiously because of asthma attack fear as in the past he had suffered when he was just having fun with people his age and doing things of his age. An interesting finding is that factors such as race, ethnicity, gender and socioeconomic can influence child health and have its impact on asthma. Let's discuss each factor: Gender Boys as compared to girls are more prone to asthma. However, in adolescence it's the reverse and asthma is more severe in females and is under diagnosed and undertreated. This change is seen around the time of puberty and could possibly be due to hormonal changes and differences in environmental

Mid Term Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Mid Term - Essay Example 2. The novel is a book written in prose where the writer tries to sketch a picture of ordinary life. The novella is considered a shorter piece of prose, also referred to as a short novel. The difference between them is not the content which can range from the different genres of fiction: romance or history, but the size of the work. Thus, both the novel and novella seek to present a prose piece of work that is different only in its size. 3. Tolstoy presents his character in a light that is despicable for the reader. This character sketch can only be drawn because of the sequential turn of events in Ivan Ilych’s life. The momentum set up by the writer is vital in achieving the true goal of the story: a revelation into the life of Ivan Ilych. Had the story been written differently with the colleagues and wake scene being given last the epiphany that is reveal too Ivan would have been lost. The story allows for the reader to better understand the character’s change in opinion about life. 4. The suspense of the novel originates from the reader’s desire to better understand the reason behind Ivan’s death. As the story continues the reader notices the suffering in Ilych’s life. While the character had to understand his life’s failures now it’s coupled with physical pain which worsens with his loneliness and hatred. The suspense is created with because of the beginning which makes the reader wonder: will Ivan reconcile with his death or will the story end happily. 5. An instance of the torment Ivan puts his family through is evident in his widow’s description of his last days â€Å"He screamed unceasingly†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..Oh what I have suffered!† A grieving widow should remember the good qualities instead she chooses to remember the relentless nights she suffered with her husband’s illness. Peter Ivanovich on the other hand is mortified by the idea of death itself â€Å"death was an accident natural to Ivan Ilych but certainly not to

Chinese History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Chinese History - Essay Example Moreover, there was a system of training administration officials which was an innovative approach towards ensuring that the affairs of the state could be managed in an efficient and effective manner. The establishment of a bureaucracy helped to ensure the administration process in an effectual manner (Ebrey, 67). Confucianism was adopted as the major system for running the affairs of the state. Confucian system advocated the belief that each individual must obey the family and have devotion towards the rulers. This helped to instill a sense of discipline among the officials. The top officials of the dynasty were living in the capital where they provided valuable counsel to the emperor. The lower officials would be responsible for maintaining roads and canals. They were also entrusted with the duty of maintaining the process of storing grain. The emperors introduced a system of meritocracy where officials were chosen by their competency and ability. A rigorous test was needed so that they could become officials of the state (Ebrey, 67). Civil servants were evaluated after three years for their performance. Therefore punishment and reward were used in combination with other measures to ensure that officials could perform their duties. The Han dynasty was created when Liu Bang won a civil conflict against Xiang Yu. His model of governance was based upon reducing taxes and creating a centralized state. The harsh punishments were reduced in order win the loyalty of the people. The centralized state was a unique innovation as compared with the nomadic lifestyle of Chinese in previous years. This is because of the fact that the provincial officials had to report to the central government. This made them accountable and transparent which led to sound outcomes (Ebrey, 67). A basic local government was formed in different counties which led to efficiency. Han Wu Ti was the greatest ruler of the Han dynasty. He presided over military expansion while enhancing Chinese col onies as well as increasing influence over Central Asia. The creation of the Silk Road helped to increase the trade and prosperity of the empire. The system of governance that was in place helped the empire to provide more freedom to the people. Social mobility and freedom helped prevent rebellions and insurrections against the government (Ebrey, 67). The Han dynasty led China into an unprecedented era of economic expansion, military achievements, scientific discoveries, and powerful stability. The dynasty was able to achieve this through the development of a powerful centralized state. It was able to focus on ruling the empire in a centralized manner so that it could prevent disorder and anarchy within the empire. This was a significant achievement for the empire. B1 A Confucian system focused on the notion of community rights where each individual would be able to contribute towards its progress. A number of advantages existed for this system such as the fact that an individual wo uld contribute towards the development of society with an emphasis on duty and responsibility. Knowledge and spiritual growth would flourish in such a system while the emphasis would be on meritocracy so that an individual would gain social standing and status based upon their personal actions. Moreover, it encourages respect and kindness as a virtue that can create a humane society. The disadvantages of such a system are that it encouraged the development of a hierarchy which would lead to unfairness (Sinaiko, 91). Confucian system focused on family which had a negative aspect also such as the fact that it led to fights and conflicts in which the entire family was involved if a single member had been hurt or wronged. The system also encourages the subordination of females who must remain obedient to

Among B-Boys Film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Among B-Boys Film - Essay Example The chief premise of the film Among B-BOYS, charts the progress and acculturation of this specific community. The film comprises of a compendium of dance battles with a generous flavor of B-Boy styling. The Hmong community living in the Fresno area in California is portrayed in Woon’s film and traces the day to day activities and the lives of those living there. In his earlier film, the director sheds light on the after school activities of the Hmong B-Boys and in his present film he shows how those same characters have grown up and have now moved on to greater things. For example, one of the characters named Sukie those with his elder brother to North Carolina just to escape the hard life in Fresno. Unfortunately, they are forced to settle in Tulsa, Oklahoma and soon find themselves hoped up with a group of Hmongs once again. Twin characters Steven and Michael to go to college at Long Beach State and manage to distinguish themselves during the bee B-boy competitions conducted regionally. However, they remain grounded close to their family. Meanwhile, the older Hmong’s in Fresno, who are in their late twenties still continue to nurture a healthy B-boying attitude instead of resorting to crime, drugs or gang activities. Among B-BOYS Is considered to be a revelation in itself because it has brought to the audience the bigger picture of an American community by cohesively weaving together the modern and the traditional. After viewing the screening of the film Among B-BOYS and discussing in the class on the intricacies of its presentation, I have come to understand the B-BOY culture of hip-hop in a much better manner. On analyzing the film, I could say that it was not only entertaining but also very interesting and informative. Through our discussions in class we came to understand about what views and ideas the others in the group had and the opinions they had formed. Besides learning more about the lives of people in this community we also came to u nderstand about the identity and beliefs shared by this group. 2) Enemies of the people Enemies of the People is a scintillating 93 minute film that took almost a decade to finish. This film is co-directed by Cambodian investigative journalist Thet Sambath and Ron Lemkin. The slaughtering of nearly two million people by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia is explored in the deeply moving documentary titled ‘Enemies of the People’. A winner of the Sundance World Cinema Special Jury Prize: Documentary, this documentary is a watershed account of the genocide that took place in Cambodia. The film is a result of the long and arduous journey of investigative journalist Thet Sambath who devoted a good part of his life to elicit confessions from the leaders and cadres of Khmer Rouge about their role in the genocide. The contents of the film stir the audience by offering a chilling account on how orders were passed down to lower cadres to kill people. In the film the emotional turmoil o f two such executioners is prominently figured. For the first time the number two authority of the Khymer Rouge, Nuon Chea also known as Brother Number Two gives details of how the enemies of the state were killed. These people were executed on orders from Pol Pot and Nuon Chea. This landmark documentary sheds light on the human nature and the capacity of some human beings to do some of the most terrible things

Economics for Business and Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Economics for Business and Management - Essay Example According to Anderton (2000), the consumers are the ones who determine what is to be produced hence determine allocation of resources leading to allocative efficiency. The demand for goods and services by consumers triggers the producers to increase production thus engaging more factors of production in the process. The income earned by the factors determines the amount of consumption by individuals; the more the income, the higher the consumption or demand. At the initial stage, competition by consumers for scarce resources pushes the prices up. The law of supply states that the higher the price, the higher the quantity supplied thus the producers increase production and get more profit. Since there are no barriers to entry in a free market, more producers may enter the market attracted by the abnormal profits (Griffiths & Wall, 2008). In the long run, supply will increase more than demand and the firms will start competing for the few buyers pushing the prices down. A fall in price means the profits also decline leading to reduction in production by firms and exit from the market by others. An optimum allocation of resources occurs where demand by consumers interacts with supply by producers. The resources are used to produce the goods that are most in demand by consumers hence resources are transferred from one use to another which is more profitable. As such, some people are made well off while others are made worse off. For example, if a firm decides to change the technology used in production it will employ individuals who have such skills and those who don’t possess the required skills are declared redundant and lose their wages. The firm can also use new equipments. High prices make some consumers to afford goods while others cant due to amount of income held by individuals. According to the law of demand, the lower the price the higher the quantity demanded. A reduction in production by producers may force prices up as consumers compete for the goods. The high prices in turn lead to cut in consumption. The producers therefore must innovate ways of producing goods at low cost hence low prices for goods and increased demand. This leads to productive efficiency of the economy (Griffiths & Wall, 2008). Competition by firms leads to innovation as firms try to gain competitive advantage. They thus produce high quality goods to the advantage of consumers. Lipsey & Chrystal (2007) argue that the free market gives better information on changing market conditions thus allowing buyers and sellers to make informed decisions. For example, when prices are low it signals that there is high supply in the market and an incentive for buyers to buy more. High prices indicate scarcity of goods and hence an incentive for sellers to sell more and make profit. High prices also induce firms to employ more factors of production. Due to availability of information, decision makers respond quickly to changes in consumer demand (Vidler & Grant, 2003) . The free market system also allows consumers to have a variety of choices from different firms. Q1 (b): How Market Failure Occurs and how Government can Correct Market Failure Market failure is due to inefficient functioning of the markets. A market should be able to resolve the questions of

Statement of purpose biotechnology Essay Example for Free

Statement of purpose biotechnology Essay There was a time when the average awareness of man did not extend beyond the immediate. But over the centuries and especially over the past decade the average intellectual and knowledge levels of people have -undergone an exponential increase. And keeping in with the laws of evolution and survival it has become imperative for every individual to strive a lot harder even to maintain a status quo. I do not wish to exist and strive merely for survival, for though human beings being a creature of this earth are subject to the same laws of nature and survival, I believe that there should be a cause which extends beyond mere survival to justify ones existence and the gift of a superior intellect. That I believe is the true essence of civilization. My Bachelors degree in Engineering will definitely ensure my survival, but to justify my existence I feel I should give back more to this world and leave it a better place. It is this philosophy and put myself in a position to do so that I wish to pursue my Masters and later my Doctoral studies. Background I have displayed a natural aptitude for biology ever since my school years. And have even won quite a few awards for the same. So upon passing out of high school it was but natural I seek a career in the same field. Microbiology and Biotechnology were the two options I was faced with. Microbiology though being the more glamorous cousin lost out. Because since Biotechnology is where my interest lay, it is what I felt I would excel at. For it is definitely â€Å"better to be the best in a mediocre field, than be mediocre in the best field †. My grades to date have vindicated my decision. Ever since the beginning of my third year I had decided to pursue Masters and later my PhD from an institute of international renown. It remained for me to zero in on the area of specialization. I studied up on the various options available, and the application of ______________ and its contribution to ____________________ fascinated me. In my pre final year I read a special article in a magazine called Global Educator about the application of ______________, after reading the article I got a clear insight as to what was ________________________ about and as expected, appealed to me. I was totally impressed with how _____________________. However my knowledge in the subject could at best be termed less than superficial. One of the major reasons for applying to your university is the highly impressive research work in progress in areas pertaining to the ______________________. I chose to present a paper on the topic of â€Å"_________________________†. I immersed myself in researching up the topic and presented the paper. My third year project â€Å" _________________† helped me get a better idea to the field of ___________________. I have tried to get a perspective of the industrial constraints and aspects of the subject by undergoing Industrial trainings and certifications at some of the premiere institutes in India like __________________, _____________ and _________________. I have also had exposure to various other fields like _____________, ___________ and _________________. In fact, I intend to use my masters as a testing ground for further narrowing down my area of interest so as to zero in on a topic that I could make a passion and of course also continue my research in the same! Why USA and your institute Lucre has never had much lure for me. It is a necessity, but only just that. It is to leave an indelible mark in my chosen field that is my â€Å"raison d’etre†. Unfortunately very few institutes in the world can boast of an extensive research set up and infrastructure, in my area of interest. And it is precisely this reason why I have chosen US of A, and your institute in particular to pursue my masters. I am especially impressed with research work being carried out by Dr. ______________ and Dr. ____________ in the field of _______________ and _________________. I am also keen on being a part of the research centers and laboratories like __________________ and __________________. For I believe your institute will provide me with the ideal ambience to pursue my masters and later my Doctorate. My life my philosophy and my possible contribution to your institute I know I am not perfect, and I am always willing to make myself a better human being. It is a process I will continue till the day I die. Life with its endless lessons is a class in itself. I have vowed never to become a cynic, no matter how many setbacks I have, for I have realized that life is too short to be spent over things that did not happen or could have. Because such a lot else is happening, and a lot more is yet to happen. Though in terms of knowledge I stand to gain more than I can contribute, but it is my abilities as a person and my attitude towards life in general which I believe will help enriching the already rich texture of your university. I realize everything we do is directly or indirectly an endeavor to make the world a better place, and therefore I always feel it is more important to be good human beings, than just good professionals. On a micro level, it applies to ones immediate surroundings. I also come from a land of immense diversity, where tolerance has been an accepted way of life. But unfortunately in the modern world it is often misconstrued as a weakness. I believe it is in the best interest of humanity that people with a broad global outlook, like mine, interact on an international stage. My Short and long term Goals I wish to be considered an authority in my field and leave a legacy that will  live on beyond me. I am well aware that age changes ones priorities. I know it is my youthful optimism and exuberance that speaks. Probably 20 years down the line tempered with the wisdom of age, I will be doing a rethink on my priorities but as of now I want to be involved in path breaking research work in my field and later pursue my doctorate along similar lines. Like mentioned earlier it is my desire to make a big difference in every possible way to humanity.

Cash Cropping in Nepal Essay Example for Free

Cash Cropping in Nepal Essay On an individual crop basis, tomatoes and potatoes were the most increasing, sensitivity analysis and scenarios suggest high variability and limited short-term impact on poverty alleviation. Profitable. On a per farm basis, 50% of the households with positive farm gross margins grew at least one vegetable crop, while only 25% of households with negative farm gross margins included vegetable crops in their rotation. Farmers have been hesitant to produce primarily for the market given the rudimentary infrastructure and high variability in prices. Farmers reported selling more crops, but when corrected for inflation, gross revenues declined over time. The costs and benefits of developing markets have been unevenly distributed with small holders unable to capitalize on market opportunities and wealthier farmers engaging in input intensive cash cropping. Farms growing vegetables had an average gross margin of US$137 per year compared to US$12 per year for farms growing only staple crops. However, the area under production is small and, while vegetable production is likely to continue Key words: Agriculture, Cash crops, Gross margin, Household economics, Market inequity, Poverty Introduction Cash cropping has been promoted by development specialists as a mechanism to alleviate rural poverty in countries such as Nepal. Programs have capitalized on existing transportation networks, the proximity to urban centers or niche markets (Panday, 1992). But there are concerns that agricultural commercialization by-passes the poor. The cash and land quality requirements of capital intensive farming may limit the capacity of poorer farmers to invest, while the risks associated with yield and price variability may limit their willingness to participate in commercial production Both the Agricultural Perspective Plan (APROSC, 1995) and the ninth National Plan (GON, 1998) of Nepal promote the intensification of agriculture and increased cash crop production. In the Mid-hills of Nepal near Kathmandu, potato and tomato production have increased dramatically in the last 10 years (Brown and Shrestha, 2000). But, vegetable production is demanding of soil, water, and human resources. A systematic assessment of cash cropping is required to determine the impact on household well-being. The aims of this paper are five-fold: 1) to determine the relative profitability of vegetable production in the Mid- hills of Nepal; 2) to assess the economic impact of incorporating vegetables into the dominant cropping patterns; 3) to analyze the variability between households; 4) to assess the impact of fluctuations in price; and 5) to evaluate temporal changes in household well-being with the incorporation of vegetable production. Methods The relative profitability of agricultural production between farms provides a mechanism to compare the economic status of farming households with diversified cropping systems. An indication of the profitability of each farm can be obtained by computing gross margins, defined as total returns less total variable costs. Total returns are equal to the value of all crops produced (including crop residues), irrespective of whether the crop is sold. Total variable costs include: the purchase of seed, fertilizer, and pesticides; hiring oxen; and all labor involved in cultivation activities. Labor includes the time spent in planting, irrigation, fertilizing, spraying, weeding, harvesting and transportation and selling and includes the opportunity cost of family labor. The gross margin can thus be viewed as the return to fixed costs (land and livestock) and management. Gross margin analysis, in this context, focuses on production or income with respect to agriculture. As it does not take into account the time value of money, gross margins are not sensitive to interest rates, and are a good first approximation of financial feasibility.

Social Disorganization Theory

Social Disorganization Theory The social disorganisation theory was one of the most important criminological theories developed from the Chicago School of thought, namely research conducted by Shaw and Mckay (1942). Shaw and McKay (1942) used spatial maps to study the residential locations of juveniles referred to Chicago courts, they discovered that rates of crime were not equally dispersed. Instead, crime was concentrated in certain areas and interestingly remained stable in such areas despite the changes of the individuals who lived there. Unlike other theories of delinquency, The Social Disorganisation Theory suggested that where an individual lived was more instrumental in determining the likelihood that an individual will become involved in criminal activities than individual characteristics such as age and gender. The theory was not intended to be applicable to all types of crimes but mainly to street crimes at neighbourhood level. The Social disorganization theory directly linked high crime rates to neigh bourhood ecological characteristics such as poverty, residential mobility, family disruption and racial heterogeneity (Gaines and Miller, 2011). All of which will be discussed in more detail throughout this essay. The first core element of the social disorganization theory to be discussed is Poverty, which can be defined as the state of being extremely poor. Such a lack of wealth is often seen to be due to the lack of employment opportunities. Such incentives like the Princes Trust and Catch 22 focus on poorer areas of society and seek to increase the employment opportunities for young people there. Jenson (2003) found that when employment opportunities increase pressures on residents to flee decrease ensuring more stable and improved communities. However it is when employment opportunities remain low that economic deprivation grows which could lead to social disorganization, which in turn leads to crime (Shaw and McKay, 1942). Other theories such as The Strain Theory (Merton, 1957) support the impact that poverty can have on a communities crime rates as due to lack of employment opportunities people turn to other methods of fulfilling their financial and material needs in an anti social way i f this cannot be done pro-socially such as through employment. Racial Heterogeneity is the second element of the social disorganisation theory to be reveiwed; this notion is related to the diverseness of races within a society. The social disorganization theory proposes that crime occurs when the methods of social control are weakened (Sun, Triplett and Gainey, 2004). Interestingly it is racial heterogeneity and urbanization that are predicted to weaken the control of individuals to most, due to lack of communication and interaction among residents (Sun, Triplett and Gainey, 2004). It is the lack of knowledge that allows for the racial separation along with the media often using particular races as scapegoats for certain crimes almost creating a moral panic within the communities singling out a certain race which would then increase the likelihood of their engagement in criminal activity (Bowling, 2002). This is supported by the findings that even among poorer neighborhoods, some racially diverse and others racially homogeneous, local friendship s lower certain crime rates such as assault (Sun, Triplett and Gainey, 2004). The third element of the social disorganisation theory to be considered is residential mobility this refers to the frequency of which individuals change their residence. Residential mobility has proven to help to explain the social disorganization theory, it has successfully explained automobile theft (Rice and Smith, 2002), gang crime (Lane and Meeker, 2000) and sexual re-offending (Mustaine, Tewksbury and Stengel ,2006). Shaw and McKay (1942) also noted that socially disorganized communities tended to produce criminal traditions that could be passed to successive generations of youths, due to the lack of residential mobility; criminal subcultures developed and overrun communities. It was hard for people to re-locate for reasons such as financial and fears of leaving that community. Residential mobility and poverty were often seen as interrelating factors in research on the social disorganisation theory as they were both significant predictors of delinquency but were stronger predic tors when looked at together (Blau and Blau, 1982). The final element to be discussed is family disruption; family has proven to be leading process within the social disorganisation theory (Sun, Triplett and Gainey, 2004). Sampson (1986) suggested that social disorganization may affect youth crime in particular its effects on family structures and stability. Consistent with the previous research social disorganization may influence the level of crime through its effect on family, however other researchers found that family may be used to alleviate the damaging effects of social disorganization. Tolan, Gorman-Smith and Henry (2003) found that parenting practices somewhat mediated the correlation between disorganised community and delinquency. However this study looked at families who were not seen to be disrupted. Burfeind (1984) found that that family disruption influenced delinquency in different ways, such as: the level of attachment to the father and paternal discipline. However the majority of studies that looked at the interactio n of family disruption and social disorganisation theory focused on male offenders and did not consider female crime; something which has been steadily on the increase in todays society. Despite its early origins, social disorganization theory continues to be prominent in the study of delinquency. In fact, Kubrin and Weizer (2003) suggested that the theory may be stronger now than when it was first proposed. As suggested in this essay, social disorganization theory continues to dominate in explaining delinquency in regards to the neighbourhood characteristics such as; poverty, racial heterogeneity, family disruption and residential mobility. It could be suggested that to prevent delinquency it is important to organise communities who are disorganized for example providing youth centres, employment opportunities and empowering individuals to maintain their homes in disorganized communities. By improving neighbourhoods and making them more appealing, social controls and relationships will be strengthened. All the elements discussed within the essay have a clear impact on the social disorganisation theory and the more of which are present in a community increases the li kelihood of social disorganisation and delinquency (Shaw and McKay, 1942). However it must be noted that poverty was often found to be the strongest and most consistent predictor of crime compared to the other three core elements: racial heterogeneity, racial mobility and family disruption (Warner and Pierce, 1993).

iPad: Thumbs Up or Thumbs Down? Essay -- Environmental Issues

Technology has always fascinated me due to its fast evolution of electronic devices, especially the revolution of computers. In this very case, the iPad, a truly global product, particularly caught my attention. Digging deeper, it is the components of the iPad that accomplish this high quality of product, making it a popular demand. However, the Apple company itself did not produce the components. The other reputable companies and their factories overseas did. The iPad contains so many components that it is unbelievable. It is quite a fascinating journey walking through most of the components that are accessible to the location of productions, not to mention overall impact the product has on the environment, such as carbon emissions. It is expected that every product has its downside, and the iPad is no exception. Unfortunately, Apple products are known as the the most environmentally-unfriendly brand amongst all other brands of electronics. The fast production of the iPad due to th e popular demand is not helping much on this aspect of the product either. Not to mention the fact that a new edition of iPad comes out every year. Hence, it is time to reveal the negative side of the popular global product, the iPad. The components in the iPad are various and complicated. There are so many that it is quite easy to get lost from all the introduction of the intricate parts. Opening up the iPad, the components revealed. Not surprisingly, the components are from all around the world with different reputable companies that are known for their technological advancement and promising high quality. The iPad has unbelievably amount of parts inside of it; imagine the potential hazard it can bring to the environment, not just how the constitue... ...to stop the terrible consequences that the human beings would have to face sooner or later. Works Cited "Apple - The Story Behind Apple's Environmental Footprint." Apple. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2012. . Miller, Michael J.. " iPad 2: Designed in California, Manufactured Everywhere ." Forward Thinking . N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2012. . Sherr, Ian. " Breaking Down the iPadà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Components - Digits - WSJ." WSJ Blogs - WSJ. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2012. . "iPad Environmental Report." iPad Environmental Report. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2012. .

Acid Rain Legislation :: essays research papers

Acid Rain Legislation Acid rain is a destructive force as a result of nature and man colliding. It is formed through harmful industrial emissions combining with contents of the earth's atmosphere; a dangerous combination. This prompted governments throughout North America to take action. Many laws and regulations have been implemented, yet the question still remains, "Should tougher legislation be implemented to force industries to reduce acid rain emissions?" To decide whether tougher legislation should be implemented, one must first understand the details of what exactly acid rain is. Acid rain is a result of mankind's carelessness. It travels a long one of the most efficient biogeochemical cycles on earth, the Hydrologic Cycle. This allows acid rain to distribute itself further away from it's source causing more than local problems. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) is released by fossil fuels when they undergo combustion. Power plants and other fossil fuel burning industrial areas release various forms of nitrous oxides (Nox). These two chemical compounds combine with the water in the atmosphere to form what is known as acid rain. The main reason that has prompted legislation of industrial emissions from governments is because of the negative effects they can have on the environment. Acid rain is harmful to the environment because of it's low pH. It can harm the biotic components of earth, and also the abiotic components. It's high acidity degrades soil to the point where it cannot support any type of plant life. Trees in forests are killed over long-term exposure. When these trees are killed, an imbalance in the hydrologic cycle can occur. Without living trees to consume the precipitate, it must be consumed by the earth or any other plants. These will receive an excess of water, causing other problems in the hydrologic cycle. This in turn causes a chain reaction of death among our forests. Some regions are more susceptible to acid rain because they don't have enough Alkaline soil to "neutralize" the acid before it is able to destroy the rest of the soil or before it can run off into lakes or rivers. Aquatic environments can be greatly affected by soil runoff. Acidic soil may runoff into lakes and rivers due to erosion, causing acid rain to destroy more environment. Acid rain aquatic animals as well as aquatic plant life. When acid rain combines with water in major bodies of water, it not only destroys wildlife habitat, it destroys our drinking water. An aquatic ecosystem is very dependent on each and every aspect within itself. Once one species dies off, others that depend on it, will eventually begin to die off also.

Essay --

There is an epidemic that is sweeping society that is visible and difficult not to notice; Obesity. Obesity can be called many things by many people. Some people in our society refer to obesity as an epidemic or a disease or a fat person’s problem. Obesity can be labeled many things by many people but there is a general consensus that obesity is a national problem. A person who is obese can be singled out by an employer to pay higher health insurance premiums solely because he or she is obese. The implication that an obese person is put into a separate category from a non-obese person can strengthen the stigma that obesity has on the society. Obesity in society impacts everyone from increased healthcare costs, a person’s overall physical and mental health and the stigma that being obese carries. Society’s problem with obesity is not solely for the children and adults who are overweight, but for every person to help find workable solutions to stop the overall hea lth epidemic that obesity causes. The cost of being obese affects not only the person who is obese but also health care providers, employers and insurance companies. There is a financial strain that is felt throughout society because of the increase of health care costs, health insurance premiums and earning potentials of obese workers that affect the society now and in the future. A person who is obese will â€Å"incur almost $40,000 in additional lifetime health care costs† than a person who is not obese (Davlglus, 2005, p. 98). The numbers associated with the cost of obesity are staggering. Individuals who are obese will spend about $1,500 more in health care and $600 more in prescription drugs than a person who is not obese (Guarino, 2013). The cost of obesity not only aff... ...ividual person and to the society have far reaching effects on the economy as a whole and the obese individual. The physical and mental health of an obese person is not only a concern for the individual but to society. When a group of people are inflicted with diseases directly related to obesity it is time for society to step up and demand a change in how we treat obesity related illnesses and not make obese individuals ashamed to seek medical treatment. The views society has on an obese person does not help foster positive and encouraging feelings but encourages social stigma against the obese. The cycle of health care and health and views on the obese all work together in this epidemic. One part of the obesity problem cannot be solved or addressed without it effecting another area and the problem of our society and nation to work together to find a solution.

Was the Civil War Fought over Slavery?

The Civil War was the bloodiest war in all of America's history. But some things still remains a mystery in the Civil War. There were many reasons to how the Civil War was cause. A lot of people thinks that slavery was the cause,but it is only one of the many causes. Slavery, Economy, and State's Rights were the main cause to the Civil War. The slavery brought tensions,many differences in economy,and fighting for a cause. Tensions rose as Republicans and Democrats fight for a solution in slavery,the North and South many differences in their economy,and reasons to fighting in the Civil War.The Civil War was fought for slavery, economy, and State's Rights. During the 1860s election,the topic of slavery brought many political tensions to the Republicans and Democrats. The Republicans was an anti-slavery party. The Republicans disagree of the spreading of slavery and would take this issue to Congress,whenever they can,to stop its expansion. They viewed slavery as an a problem that would last forever,and thought the problem would soon lead to extinction As for the Democrats,they were pro-slavery party.They viewed slavery was good not only for the slave holder,but also for the slave(John C. Calhoun). In the 1850s Abraham Lincoln said that slavery was â€Å"an unqualified evil to the negro, the white man, and the State,† but later on in his first Inaugural Address he said that he had â€Å"no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with slavery in the States where it exists. †Abraham Lincoln personally didn't like slavery but as a Republican he wished to abolish it. But as the President of America,he made a promise to the Constitution,which protected slavery.Therefore the tension that rose from slavery resulted in constant fighting of the Republicans and Democrats. The North and South had many differences one of their differences is their economy. In 1793, Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin,profited a lot. It reduced time the time it took to separate the seeds from the cotton. But it also increase the number of slaves on the plantation.Because of this machine that means that there will be more plantations which means that there will  be a greater need for slaves. The South soon became a cotton crop economy,depending on slaves. While the North was a factory economy relying on wage labors than slaves. To sum up this make the major difference in the economy of the North and South (http://americanhistory. about. com/od/civilwarmenu/a/cause_civil_war. htm). The North and South had many reasons to why they fought in the Civil War,but slavery was not the main reason. In Lincoln's first Inaugural Address he declared that it was his job to look after the Union.He also said that he has no intention of freeing the slaves. The Confederacy couldn't accept this so on April 12, they attack Fort Sumter resulting in the beginning of the Civil War. Few states cut off ties with the Union, after more attacks. So to keep ties with remain ing states Lincoln insisted that the war was not about slavery or black rights but was to protect the Union (http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2967. html). The South fought out of fear and for their rights to secede. The Union abides by the Constitution and the South fought to abandon the Constitution.In conclusion the many reasons of the North and the South does not have slavery as the main reason (http://library. thinkquest. org/CR0215469/secession. htm). The Civil War was fought on slavery, economy, and State's Rights. Therefore the tensions that rose resulted in the Republicans and Democrats constantly fighting,the Economy being the greatest difference in the North and South,and slavery not the only reason for fighting in the Civil War. Slavery may be the most important cause but it is not the only cause for the Civil War.

A Smoke Free Campus Health And Social Care Essay

Smoke-free campus – a study of pupil smoking behavior and attitudes towards smoke-free policies in University Halls of ResidenceBackgroundSmoking within higher instruction pupils in the UK is frequently overlooked due to comprehend low prevalence, nevertheless with increased engagement and increasing Numberss of international pupils within UK universities smoking prevalence may hold increased. Smoke-free statute law, introduced in the UK in 2007, applies to university adjustment. Small grounds exists on the impact of smoke-free policies in UK higher instruction residential environments.PurposesTo measure smoking behaviors within pupils and the impact of smoke-free policy in a Higher Education environment.MethodsA cross-sectional online study was delivered to occupants within university adjustment to mensurate smoking prevalence, behavior and attitudes toward smoke, motive to discontinue, cognition of smoke-free policy and positions on policy development. Logistic arrested development theoretical accounts were used to research forecasters for exposure to tobacco fume and motives to discontinue.ConsequencesA sum of 637 pupils responded to the study of which 587 were eligible to take part and were included in the survey. The bulk of respondents were ‘home ‘ pupils from the UK ( 67.3 % ) , first twelvemonth undergraduate pupils ( 66.3 % ) and female ( 57.8 % ) . Sm oking prevalence within a residential pupil population was calculated at 38.3 % , higher in males ( 57.3 % ) than females ( 42.7 % ) though this was non significantly different ( OR 0.72, 95 % CI 0.52-1.01, p=0.06 ) . Non-daily tobacco users were less likely to place themselves as tobacco users and those who started smoking at a younger age are more likely to still smoke. Students were bothered if other people smoked close to them ( 60.3 % ) . After seting for gender and place state, pupils were 10 times more likely to mind if other people smoke nearby ( OR 0.1, 95 % CI 0.06-0.15, P & lt ; 0.001 ) . A figure of pupils did non place with being a tobacco user ( 32.4 % ) , half of non-daily tobacco users were in this group. Over two tierces of tobacco users intended to discontinue at some point. The bulk of pupils ( 70.9 % ) stated that they were on a regular basis exposed to other peoples tobacco fume on University premises. Inside university abodes, 17.9 % were on a regular basis exposed to smoke. The adjustment site, the pupils smoking position and if the pupil smokes indoors are independent forecasters of being exposed to smoke inside abodes. Knowledge of smoke-free policy with a university residential scene is limited, as is enforcement and hence success. An appetite exists for policy development towards restricted out-of-door smoke.DecisionSmoking prevalence within UK higher instruction pupil populations may be higher than normally perceived, though purposes to discontinue are reported. Knowledge of smoke-free policies within university adjustment is patchy and enforcement activity is low, though an appetency for policy development exists.Introductionâ€Å" Accounting for about 79,0001 deceases from related diseases and wellness results each twelvemonth, smoke is widely acknowledged as the individual most harmful, preventable wellness load in England. Equally good as the expressed wellness effects of smoking for the population, the inexplicit cost load of smoking related wellness concerns to the NHS is estimated at about ?5.2 billion per year2. Media advertisement and sponsorship of featuring events by baccy companies were banned in 2002-20033 and in 2007 Article 84 of the World Health Organisation ( WHO ) Framework Convention on Tobacco Control ( 2005 ) 5 was expanded sing the protection of the populace from exposure to tobacco fume. Smoke-free statute law in many states had pre-empted these expanded guidelines, with the UK phasing the debut of smoke-free statute law, England being the concluding state to implement smoke-free policy in July 2007. The statute law bans smoking in public edifices, workplaces and vehicles used for work intents and includes offices, fabrication premises, the cordial reception industry etc. Exceptions to the statute law can be made for designated sleeping rooms in hotels and other residential establishments, such as prisons and pupil adjustment. A figure of surveies undertaken shortly following the debut of the statute law suggested important additions in ‘quit efforts ‘ and decreases in smoking prevalence due to the legislation6, although this was thought to hold slowed over time7. A reappraisal of grounds published by the University of Bath in March 20118 loosely agreed with these findings. A proposed comprehensive reappraisal of the impact of smoke-free statute law, scheduled for 2010, was non undertaken as the authorities felt that ‘the statute law is working'9. Smoking within the higher instruction pupil population is non widely regarded as a peculiar job, with smoking being more traditionally linked to manual occupations10. However, with recent enterprises to widen engagement in Higher Education making a more assorted pupil population, along with increasing Numberss of international pupils, many from states where smoke is more prevailing than in the UK, smoking prevalence within the pupil organic structure may hold increased. Datas made available by the University of Leicester ‘s linked GP surgery to Leicester City PCT, through the NHS Quality Management and Analysis System ( QMAS ) , suggests that about 10 % of the pupils registered with the pattern are recorded as tobacco users. This information must be treated as declarative due to a figure of factors: including the built-in nature of QMAS smoking data11 ; the fact that those registered with the surgery will merely be a proportion of the overall pupil population ; plus the possible for misreporting of smoking position when registering with the surgery ( up to 2000 pupils register in Halls of Residence on the first weekend of the academic twelvemonth when parents are frequently present ) , although the figure is loosely in line with the findings of the National Census of Students12. Anecdotal and observed grounds within the University ‘s residential environment suggests that a figure of pupils who start university as non-smokers become tobac co users in order to ‘fit-in ‘ with others ; some tobacco users begin to smoke more to a great extent, whilst some former tobacco users start to smoke one time more, as suggested by old research in the USA13. Furthermore, some insouciant or ‘social ‘ tobacco users may non place themselves as smokers14. â€Å" 15 Whilst old research has been conducted into the impacts of smoke-free policy overall, along with specific surveies focussed upon health care, particularly in mental wellness scenes, small or no research focussed upon a higher instruction scene is apparent. This survey, hence, aims to measure pupil attitudes towards smoke and the impact of smoke-free policy within a Higher Education residential scene. The survey investigates current smoking behavior within the resident pupil population, cognition of current smoke policy within the residential adjustment and the possible effects of future extensions of policy to make a smoke-free campus.Literature ReviewA literature reappraisal was undertaken to set up and summarize the background to the survey undertaking and old work published in the country. Searches of three academic databases: Embase ( 1980 – 2012 ) ; Ovid MEDLINE ( 1996 – 2012 ) and Thomson Reuters Web of Knowledge ; were undertaken, accessed through the University of Nottingham ‘s e-library gateway. A keyword hunt was performed utilizing the keywords: university ; higher instruction ; college and pupil. Title phrase hunts were performed utilizing the footings: smok $ policy ; smoking ban $ ; smoke-free ; no smo ke ; smoking control ; and tobacco control. The keyword hunt was combined with each rubric phrase utilizing the Boolean â€Å" and † operator in order to contract and concentrate the hunt consequences. The resulting lists of paperss returned by the three hunts were compared and duplicate consequences discounted. A ocular scan of rubrics and abstracts was so performed to filtrate out documents related to subjects outside the focal point of this survey. The comparatively little figure of documents retained for inclusion were downloaded in full text format and read. Pertinent works cited within the documents, which had non appeared within the database hunt consequences, were searched for utilizing Google and, where available and relevant, downloaded for inclusion. It must be acknowledged that no effort was made to beginning ‘grey ‘ literature which may hold uncovered surveies with contrasting findings16. Relatively small work was found on the topic of the effects of smoke-free policies in higher instruction residential environments, with the bulk of documents found associating to surveies undertaken in North America. A sum of 19 documents were identified through the literature hunt and included within the reappraisal. A schematic of the hunt scheme and consequences are presented in Appendix A and B severally.Smoking in pupilsSmoking within pupil populations of the UK has received small attending within the research literature. However, a figure of surveies have been undertaken, preponderantly in the US and Canada, which focussed on the issue of pupil smoke and the potency of baccy control methods to cut down prevalence. A organic structure of research work was undertaken within the US in the late 1990 ‘s and early 2000 ‘s following an addition of smoking prevalence within the immature grownup ( 18 to 24 old ages ) population throughout the 1990 ‘s, and more pertinently, an addition in smoking prevalence within college and university students17, 18. Much of this work focussed on baccy control methods within the higher instruction sector of North America. Etter et al19 had, nevertheless, begun to look at a similar issue in Geneva, Switzerland in 1999, following study work undertaken in 1996. Etter et al19 recognised that, despite Federal Swiss Torahs aimed at work force protection from baccy fume introduced in 1993, smoking prevalence in Geneva within grownups was in the order of 40 % for work forces and 33 % in females, with prevalence amongst adolescents holding about doubled within the old decennary. Several of the studies14, 17, 18, 20-25 identified that college or university old ages are possibly the most important clip in a tobacco user ‘s ‘career ‘ as, in many countries, the 18 to 24 age group is the youngest age group at which baccy companies can aim advertisement and promotions17, 18, 21, 22, 25, 26. Potential alterations in fortunes and peer groups at this age could either initiate smoke behavior, or convert occasional tobacco users to accustomed smokers14, 18, 20-25.Smoking prevalence in pupilsIn a comparing of pupils from 23 states, Steptoe et al27 found that smoking prevalence varied widely across the universe and between genders, as antecedently suggested by Lopez et al28. Steptoe et al's27 findings suggested smoking prevalence amongst the sample of pupils from England to be 29 % in work forces and 28 % in adult females, although response rates may be misdirecting as the study was administered to those in category, instead than the whole pupil cohort. Green et al21 found that amongst an 18 to 24 twelvemonth age group, non-college educated immature grownups were twice every bit likely to smoke than those enrolled in or holding graduated college, although Green et al's21 prevalence figures fell well below those reported by an ongoing one-year monitoring study in the US. Wechsler et al17 found that an overall smoke prevalence of 26.8 % reduced to 21 % in a sub-population life in smoke-free adjustment, compared to 30.6 % in unrestricted lodging, with those who were non regular tobacco users prior to age 19 demoing a lower leaning to smoke if based in non-smoking abodes. Hahn et al29 reported a 32 % decrease in smoking rate to 19.4 % within a pupil sample in an country with comprehensive, long-standing smoke-free Torahs compared to a 21 % decrease within an country of comparatively recent no smoke regulations, though Hahn et al29 recognised that smoking rates within the comparative age group, nationally, fell over the same period. Et ter et al19, nevertheless, found no alteration in smoking prevalence following the debut of a smoke-free policy in university edifices.Smoking behavior and attitudes towards smokingWhere in most surveies tobacco users were categorised by smoking frequence or ingestion, the designation of ‘smokers ‘ was raised by Berg et al14, 23 as an issue of concern sing the measuring of smoking prevalence. Berg et al23 found that over half of respondents to a study of pupils, who had smoked a coffin nail within the old 30 yearss, did non place themselves as tobacco users. In their ulterior work, Berg et al14 suggested that a complex form of standards were contemplated by pupils in order to specify a tobacco user. These standards ranged from frequence and graduated table of ingestion, clip since induction of smoking behavior and the act of smoking entirely ( versus ‘social ‘ smoke at parties etc. ) , to whether a individual buys coffin nails, exhibits the ability to discont inue easy or expose a wont. In some instances personality and physical features were cited as specifying a tobacco user. Further to the designation, and self-identification, of the position as a tobacco user, the definition of smoking position becomes progressively complex when sing the classification of tobacco users. Berg et al14 found that within focal point group participants, all of whom were tobacco users, several classs of ‘smoker ‘ were identified including â€Å" regular, occasional, or societal tobacco users † . Some participants were untalkative as to the designation of societal tobacco users as tobacco users ; nevertheless, the groups experienced trouble in specifying precisely when a ‘social tobacco user ‘ becomes a ‘smoker ‘ . Hassmiller et al30 identified the being of non-daily tobacco users as a discreet class of tobacco user exhibiting settled forms of smoke, contrary to old suggestions that non-daily or societal smoke is a impermanent phase between either induction and day-to-day smoke, or daily smoke and quitting. Berg et al31 found that bei ng a non-daily tobacco user was non needfully synonymous with being a ‘social ‘ tobacco user, as 42 % of non-daily smoke respondents reported chiefly smoking in state of affairss other than those deemed to be societal. Nichter et al32 found that a differentiation existed between ‘acceptable ‘ and ‘unacceptable ‘ smoke, wherein smoke whilst imbibing at parties was mostly considered acceptable and â€Å" non truly smoking † . However, Nichter et al32 besides found that complex regulations applied to insouciant smoke at parties to enable members of both genders to ‘look cool ‘ on the one manus, but to non smoke excessively much, or outside the party context on the other. The classification of smoking position was approached a figure of ways within the literature. Some documents merely dichotomised respondents to studies as tobacco user or non-smoker18, 19, 21, 25, 26, 29, where some subdivided the tobacco user class into groups such as day-to-day and non-daily smokers31.Motivation to discontinue smokeMoran et al33 and Berg et al14, 23 found that those college pupils who denied their position as tobacco users, or identified themselves as occasional tobacco users, were less likely to try to discontinue smoke. Berg et al31 identified that less frequent tobacco users, those who smoked to relieve ennui and those with less ‘smoking ‘ friends, exhibited increased preparedness to discontinue, peculiarly if smoking prohibitions were implemented. Butler et al34, nevertheless, found that 88 % of tobacco users in a survey sample stated that smoke-free Torahs did non alter their attitude towards discontinuing, although the survey group was of a compar atively little size.Positions on the impacts of a smoke-free policyBaillie et al25 found that whilst many of the establishments surveyed in their survey claimed to run smoke-free campus policies, many were really smoke-free indoor policies and that none of the universities were wholly smoke-free. The survey identified that some establishments may hold edifices that are situated on public streets, where a smoke-free policy would non be enforceable. The paper besides identified that smoke-free campus policies may be impracticable on big campuses where pupils and staff may hold to go long distances in order to smoke off campus, and that these policies may non cut down smoke, but instead displace any smoke activity to countries instantly outside the campus boundary, which may impact dealingss with neighbors. Berg et al24 found that pupils who were older, female, populating entirely, without kids or whose parents banned smoke in the place were more receptive to smoke-free campus policies. The survey besides found that pupils within four twelvemonth universities were more receptive to smoke-free policies than those go toing two twelvemonth colleges, although smoking rates were higher in the latter. Butler et al34 found that 87 % of participants found a smoke-free policy within edifices on campus â€Å" really † or â€Å" slightly of import † ; nevertheless, there was discrepancy between the sub-groups of the sample. Of those populating on campus, 77 % found the policy â€Å" really of import † versus 63 % of participants populating in other locations, whilst merely 46 % of current tobacco users found the policy â€Å" really of import † compared to 76 % of non-smokers, although a higher per centum of those populating off-campus were current tobacco users. In a sample of 23 universities and 13 colleges in Canada in 2005, Hammond et al22 found that, of those with pupil lodging, 81 % of universities and 75 % of colleges had implemented smoke-free policies within adjustment. Smoking limitations were operated in designated out-of-door countries in 32 % of universities and 57 % of colleges, whilst two universities reported campus-wide smoke prohibitions which included out-of-door countries. However, when asked to place the most of import issues environing pupil wellness, merely 16 % of sample establishments cited smoke, with 23 % of university representatives describing that, relative to other issues, baccy usage was â€Å" really of import † ; 57 % of college representatives reported smoking issues as â€Å" non really of import † . Further, 20 % of university and 29 % of college respondents perceived â€Å" a batch † of pupil support for strong baccy control policies on their campuses. Etter et al19 found that 32 % of participants in an intercession group, sing a smoke-free policy with limited designated smoke countries, responded with positive remarks, with 8 % noticing negatively. The negative remarks highlighted within the paper referred more towards the execution of the policy, instead than the effectivity. Interestingly, the bulk ( 60 % ) of the intercession group gave no sentiments sing the policy or its execution, which may propose either indifference towards the policy or a low impact on respondents. Rigotti18 assessed pupil support for a figure of baccy control policies put frontward by the American College Health Association and American Cancer Society. The survey found that 75 % of pupils surveyed were in favor of a smoke prohibition in all campus edifices, including abodes and eating countries. Within tobacco users, 45 % answered positively sing a prohibition on smoke in abodes, although support was reciprocally related to ingestion of baccy merchandises, with merely 29 % of heavy ( a†°?10 coffin nails per twenty-four hours ) tobacco users in favor compared to 58 % of occasional ( a†°Ã‚ ¤1 coffin nail per twenty-four hours ) tobacco users. Of those pupils populating in adjustment non capable to a smoke-free policy, 58 % stated that they would prefer a smoke-free policy to be introduced. A longitudinal survey of attitudes towards smoking ordinances on campus, reported on by Seo et al26, found that pupils go toing a campus with a smoke-free air policy were more likely to hold favorable attitudes towards smoke-free policies than those go toing a control campus with no such policy. Gerson et al20 looked at the impact of smoke-free policies within higher instruction abodes from an administrative point of position. Along with assorted impacts on costs through both decrease in amendss to edifices, fixtures and adjustments and an addition in outgo on cleansing equipment and smoke waste receptacles, decision makers identified positive impacts of smoke-free policies within abodes. Such impacts were lessenings in roomie struggles, increased pupil, parent and alumni satisfaction, demand for on-campus adjustment and keeping of current occupants. Baillie et al25 found that within a sample of universities in Canada in 2009, the execution of baccy control policy was disjointed. In those establishments that had developed smoke-free policies, the survey found that execution, monitoring and enforcement were sometimes debatable due to responsibility being passed to persons or groups who had non been involved in policy development ; those responsible for the policy holding moved on and duty non holding been transferred ; or a deficiency of dedicated support for monitoring of the policy.RestrictionsA figure of restrictions and prophylactic factors exist with respect to the literature reviewed. The comparatively little organic structure of work appears to be mostly undertaken by a little figure of writers in the field. It is besides recognised that several of these documents are based around the same study informations, potentially restricting the part of subsequently works to the collection of grounds through multiple numeration of f indings. The types of survey presented in the documents must be borne in head whilst construing the consequences. Of the 19 documents reviewed, 16 study on cross-sectional surveies: seven documents reported the usage of primary data20, 22, 24-27, 31 ; whilst the staying nine reported secondary analysis of datasets14, 17, 18, 21, 23, 30, 32-34. One paper reported a case-control intercession trial19, one a cohort study29 and one reported an experimental model28. Cross-sectional surveies, whilst leting the measuring of association, are non able to measure causality between variables. Therefore, it is of import to stay aware that, whilst decreases in smoking prevalence in some surveies may be attributable to the debut of or ongoing impact of smoke policy, other external factors non assessed by the survey may besides lend to the sensed findings, as noted by Hahn et al29. Six of the documents involved informations assemblage exercisings which offered inducements to respondents14, 22, 24, 26, 29, 31. Whilst this can be a comparatively common pattern to promote a higher rate of response, choice prejudice may be introduced which may compromise the cogency of the findings. Many of the surveies involved self-reporting by respondents which may hold led to response prejudice through the inclusion of socially desirable replies, or remember prejudice in footings of steps of ingestion, etc. No biochemical confirmation was used in any of the surveies. Confusing variables, such as demographic factors, were suitably taken into history in most of the surveies, with one survey focusing on imbibing as a major confounder for smoking32. The coverage of trying and enlisting of respondents is variable within the documents. Some papers14, 17, 19, 24, 27, 30, 33 discussed random choice techniques applied, where others contained small item sing sample selection20, 23, 29, 34. Additionally, a figure of the surveies reported comparatively low response rates which may impact the dependability and generalizability of the findings presented. Response rates varied from 18 % to 90 % . Berg et al14 reported the positions of focal point groups of tobacco users ; nevertheless, the choice procedure for these groups is likely to hold discounted those occasional tobacco users who do non place themselves as ‘smokers ‘ . The documents affecting informations and positions of establishment functionaries and campus informants20, 22, 25 should be treated with cautiousness as the dependability of responses may be compromised in order to portray the establishment in a positive mode. Besides, those establishments that take a more pro-active attack to tobacco control may be more likely to react to such surveies than other.DecisionThe bulk of the grounds reviewed nowadayss a consistent position that a smoke-free policy within Higher Education environments has a mensurable association with alterations in smoking prevalence and behavior. The grounds, nevertheless, suggests that, whilst a smoke-free policy is potentially effectual in cut downing smoke or promoting discontinuing within those who identify themselves as tobacco users, it may be less so in the instance of non-regular or ‘social ‘ tobacco users. Whilst surveies undertaken in other states may non needfully generalise to tantamount populations and scenes in the UK, the grounds provides a good base from which to look into smoke and the impact of smoke-free policies within the Higher Education sector, and specifically within the residential environment.Purposes and AimsAim of the surveyTo measure pupils ‘ smoking behavior and the impact of smoke-free policy in a Higher Education residential environment.AimsTo mensurate the prevalence of smoking within the resident pupil population ; To look into pupils ‘ smoking behavior and attitudes towards smoke ; To look into pupils ‘ motive on discontinuing smoke ; To look into positions of pupils sing enforcement, success and range of smoke-free policy ; To look into positions on possible hereafter policy development.MethodsA study of pupils within University of Leicester residential adjustment was carried out in January – March 2012. Ethical blessing was granted by the University of Nottingham Medical School Research Ethics Committee ( mention no. F8122011, see Appendix C )Instruments and ProceduresData aggregation was undertaken utilizing electronic self-completion questionnaires in two formats: online and face-to-face utilizing a tablet device.Development of the questionnaireThe study questionnaire was designed utilizing SurveyGizmo, an on-line study tool, available free to pupil users, leting secure informations aggregation. The tool allows the creative activity of efficient, professional16, 35 looking on-line studies, incorporating: study filtering ( the ability to automatically re-direct respondents to specific inquiries based on old replies ) ; duplicate response protection and informations download for usage in MS Exce l and statistical bundles for analysis. Electronic studies using inquiry filtering can assist do questionnaire completion more efficient and attractive to respondents by merely uncovering inquiries pertinent to the person based on old replies supplied. This may cut down forsaking rates due to the visual aspect of non-applicable inquiries. Further, the layout and presentation of electronic studies can be customised to forestall respondents reading in front and orienting responses based on forthcoming questions36. The cross-sectional questionnaire comprised of a upper limit of 21 closed multiple pick inquiries, some with free text Fieldss for ‘Other ‘ responses, along with a free text field for any other remarks that were non covered within the study. The usage of free text Fieldss are frequently utile for: gaining elucidation of replies to closed inquiries ; deriving penetration into issues linked to but non covered within the study and general comments16, 37. The questionnaire collected informations on demographics ( e.g. gender, age, year/level of survey ) ; smoking activity ( e.g. smoker/non-smoker, smoking history, topographic points smoked, ingestion, exposure to tobacco fume ) ; consciousness of smoke policy within university adjustment ( e.g. inside informations of policy, effects of breaching policy ) ; attitudes towards policy development and motive towards discontinuing. The questionnaire incorporated and adapted a figure of inquiries antecedently used in big scale studies such as the Health Survey for England ( HSE ) 200938 ; British Social Attitudes Survey 200839 ; Survey of Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use 200840 and Smoking Toolkit Study41. A pre-pilot exercising ( see Appendix E ) was undertaken with about 34 pupils, in little groups, populating in similar university adjustment to assist develop and measure the reading of the inquiries to be included in the study and the linguistic communication used16. During this exercising it became evident that the usage of informal language37 promoted battle with the audience and made the inquiries more personal and relevant to the respondent and their experiences, attitudes and behaviors. In this respect, a figure of inquiries were used from studies aimed at younger age groups, as pupils did non needfully place with the response options available in the HSE which uses a much longer study to roll up extremely elaborate informations. The range of the survey study did non let this degree of item to be collected. It besides became evident during this exercising that some respondents who smoked required motivating to place themselves as tobacco users. This was addressed by the inclusion of a extra smoke position inquiry, which was asked of respondents who stated that they had ne'er smoked, by agencies of a filter inquiry ( see Appendix I ) . The bill of exchange concluding study was farther tested by a little choice of pupils and cardinal professionals, including Leicester City Smoking Cessation Team, University of Leicester Healthy Living Coordinator and the Residential Support Manager. Following the study period, all informations collected was downloaded and kept in a secure, watchword protected database. As the study was anon. no personal informations were accessible by any 3rd parties.Delivery MethodsIn order to advance velocity of completion and to cut down resource ingestion, the study questionnaire was provided in electronic format for online or face-to-face completion.Online completionThe online study was promoted by electronic mail and by postings displayed in Halls of Residence. The electronic mail invitation was distributed by the University of Leicester ‘s Residential and Commercial Services, on behalf of the research worker, in order that the research worker had no direct contact with any respondent ‘s contact inside informations. The electronic mail contained a brief background to the survey, along with a reassurance as to the confidentiality and namelessness of the informations to be collected35 ( see Appendix F ) . The hyperlinks to online studies generated by tools such as SurveyGizmo are frequently long, complex and easy to mistype as they contain internal mention codifications to place the right page to expose from within the tool ‘s database. TinyURL42 is an online service which can be used to make customised, shortened links which automatically redirect the user to the original URL. These sawed-off links are less cumbrous to utilize, potentially more memorable and less prone to mistyping than the system generated URL attributed by the online study package. The TinyURL nexus was hence used to advance easy entree to the study. Posters displayed within the Halls of Residence contained similar information to that contained within the electronic mail, along with tear off check with the TinyURL nexus reference and a Quick Response ( QR ) Code[ 1 ]( see Appendix G ) . The QR codification displayed on the posting publicizing the study enabled users to link to the online study utilizing their nomadic device. The nexus contained within the electronic mail and the postings directed the respondent to the welcome page of the online study which incorporated a Answering Information Sheet and an Informed Consent inquiry ( see Appendix H ) . A follow-up reminder electronic mail was distributed two hebdomads after the initial electronic mail to promote a higher response rate16, 36. Students were reassured that they could non be identified from any responses and that all informations would be aggregated for presentation. This was of import to keep trust when arousing information sing policy breaches reported in the study. Respondents were besides offered the chance to have a sum-up of findings from the study ; one respondent requested this feedback.Face- to-face completionIn order to top-up the sample, following the two hebdomad reminder electronic mail, face-to-face self-completion43 studies were undertaken utilizing a standalone version of the questionnaire on a touch-screen tablet device utilizing an offline version of SurveyGizmo. Responses were stored on the tablet device whilst in the field and so uploaded to the secure online SurveyGizmo database when connected to the web. These face-to-face completions were administered within a public scene within the Halls of Residence and respondents were asked if they had antecedently completed the study online to av oid duplicate responses. Previous research has suggested that mixed-method attacks to self-completion questionnaires yield consequences demoing small important difference36.Sampling MethodsThe original mark population was designed to figure about 2000 pupils, occupant within the University of Leicester ‘s Oadby Student Village residences. This mark population consisted of preponderantly first twelvemonth undergraduates, populating in a mix of catered and self-catered adjustment on a residential campus, off from the chief university campus. The electronic mail incorporating the hyperlink to the study was distributed by Residential and Commercial Services ( the University ‘s abodes direction division ) who unwittingly distributed the nexus to all University of Leicester adjustment occupants, about 4700 pupils. The mark population sample was hence increased.Inclusion and exclusion standardsAll pupils shacking within the University owned and managed adjustments were included within the study. An electronic study, distributed via email links can be capable to send oning by receivers, or circulation to unintended receivers due to mistakes in distribution lists etc. As the study was aimed at occupants within the University owned and managed adjustment, the first inquiry following informed consent was used to find the eligibility of the respondent for inclusion within the survey. This eligibility inquiry asked where the respondent presently resided whilst at university. Those reacting that they resided in any signifier of university owned/managed adjustment were included within the survey. Those respondents saying that they lived in: ‘Private rented house/flat/room ‘ ; ‘Parents place ‘ ; or ‘Other ‘ were re-directed to a page informing them that they were non eligible to take portion in the survey, thanked for their clip and offered links to halt smoke information web-sites.Smoke PolicyThe smoke-free statute law enacted in 2006 and implemen ted in England in July 200744 banned smoke in all workplaces, public edifices and vehicles used for work. The statute law does, nevertheless, allow freedoms to be made for residential environments, such as survey sleeping rooms in university abodes as these are defined as private life adjustment on a par with a individual ‘s place. Communal countries within such constitutions are non covered by such freedoms. Following the national execution of statute law in 2007, the University of Leicester rolled out smoke-free policies across the bulk of its residential adjustment for the beginning of the 2007/08 academic session ( antecedently merely freshly built adjustment had been designated as non-smoking ) , censoring smoke within the abode edifices, including survey sleeping rooms. As such, the current policy, as applied to the 2011/12 academic session during which this survey was undertaken, can be found in the ‘Terms and Conditionss of Residence: Academic Year 2011/12'45 produced by the University ‘s Residential and Commercial Services section, which reads: â€Å" 3.8.1.11 You agree non to smoke in the Accommodation or the abode or within 2 meters of any door or window ; † In order to measure cognition of the full extent of the policy within the study group, the policy diction was split into two distinct response picks: ‘Smoking is non allowed indoors ‘ ; and ‘Smoking is non allowed within two meters of room accesss or Windowss ‘ .Analytic MethodsFollowing the decision of the study period, study response informations were downloaded from the SurveyGizmo platform into a secure, watchword protected informations store ready for analysis. One of the benefits of utilizing an on-line study tool is clip salvaging due to the remotion of the informations inputting process36. Although the informations were already mostly pre-coded for analysis during the design procedure within the study package, a important volume of re-coding was undertaken in order to group responses to inquiries for analysis. Classification of smoking position was undertaken following bing Health Survey for England classs and derived variables 46 modified somewhat to reflect the study population. For illustration, where the HSE categorised ‘used to smoke coffin nails on occasion ‘ and ‘used to smoke on a regular basis ‘ , the two classs have been combined as ‘used to smoke ‘ in order to account for little Numberss. These little Numberss of ex-regular tobacco users and heavy tobacco users are most likely a contemplation of the age and background of the population. Univariate analyses were undertaken for all inquiries, followed by bivariate and multivariate analysis focussed around the subjects of the survey aims. Analysis was performed utilizing STATA 1147. Crude odds ratios, with 95 % assurance intervals, between the result and the chief exposure variables were calculated utilizing logistic arrested development analysis. Where possible, informations were used to their fullest extent, with losing informations categorised as such when used as an exposure variable. Outcome variables were dichotomised and associations were examined. The suitableness of utilizing informations as uninterrupted or categorical variables was tested utilizing the likeliness ratio trial. The likeliness ratio trial was used to measure the overall significance of variables in the univariate and multivariate analyses. Statistical significance was assumed if p values were less than 0.05. Exploratory analysis was undertaken of hazard factors of being exposed to smoke in and around university adjustment utilizing a figure of exposure variables. Variables were considered as possible confounders if they were significantly associated with exposure to smoke in university adjustment. A backward arrested development theoretical account was used which started with all potentially of import variables ; those that were important ( p & lt ; 0.05 ) , taking the least statistically important variables, one by one, until all the staying variables were statistically important. The likeliness ratio trial was used to find whether a variable was important and added or removed from the theoretical account.ConsequencesThe study nexus was distributed to 4,700 pupils populating in University of Leicester residential adjustment. A sum of 637 ( 13.6 % ) pupils responded to the study, of these 587 consented to take portion in the study and passed the eligibility standards giving a engagement rate of 12.5 % . Five respondents decided non to take portion after reading the participant information sheet, 22 participants were ineligible as they no longer lived in university adjustment, and 23 respondents abandoned the study whilst finishing the demographic information ( see Mistake: Reference beginning non found ) . Figure. Recruitment and Survey Response Flow Diagram ParticipantFlowDiagram.bmpParticipant FeaturesMistake: Reference beginning non found summarises the demographic features of the 587 participants. Of the respondents, 57.8 % were female and 42.2 % were male. Almost two tierces ( 66.3 % ) of respondents were 1st twelvemonth undergraduates and over half ( 53.2 % ) were aged 18-19. The bulk of respondents were from the UK ( 67.3 % ) , 12.4 % were from European states and 7.2 % were pupils from China. Table Demographic Characteristics of the Survey Participants ( and wider university population ) Demographic features of pupils populating in university adjustment differ to the wider university population ( correspondence with the university Residential and Commercial Services section confirms that greater Numberss of first twelvemonth pupils and international pupils live in university adjustment, explicating the difference in those that responded to the study in comparing to the wider university pupil population ) . A higher response rate was achieved from pupils populating in self catered metropolis populating adjustment than might be expected from the proportion of pupils populating at that place.Prevalence of smoking within the resident pupil populationOverall smoke prevalence within the sample population was measured as 38.3 % ( n=225 ) , with current smoke higher among males ( 42.7 % , n=106 ) than females ( 35.1 % , n=119 ) ( see Mistake: Reference beginning non found ) . Table Smoking Status ( current tobacco users compared to non-smokers )Students ‘ smoking behavior and attitudes towards smokingWithin the smoke group, about half ( 49.3 % ) were identified as non-regular tobacco users ( 55.5 % in females, 42.5 % in males ) and 36.8 % were identified as regular-daily tobacco users ( 31.9 % in females, 42.5 % in males ) . International tobacco users were 89 % ( 95 % CI 1.02-3.51, p=0.04 ) more likely to be day-to-day tobacco users than non-daily tobacco users ( Mistake: Reference beginning non found ) . With respect to the smoke prevalence of the pupils home state 48 this has a important consequence such that for each per centum point addition in the states smoking prevalence, the pupil is 6 % ( 95 % CI 1.01-1.11, p=0.02 ) more likely to be a day-to-day tobacco user compared to a non-daily tobacco user. Of the non-smoking group, 61.6 % had ne'er smoked ; 23.5 % had tried smoke one time or twice ; and 14.9 % were ex-smokers ( 18.3 % in males ) . Of all respondents, 62.0 % ( n=364 ) were current or ex-smokers, or had tried smoke at some clip, though 8.3 % of respondents originally denied holding tried smoke. Non-daily tobacco users were 26.6 times ( 95 % CI 8.02-88.3, P & lt ; 0.001 ) more likely to province that they do n't see themselves as tobacco users. Merely over half of females ( 51.0 % , n=173 ) and about two fifths of males ( 38.7 % , n=96 ) had ne'er smoked prior to go toing university ( overall 45.8 % , n=269 ) . The age at which most current tobacco users foremost tried smoke was every bit split with 41.8 % get downing between 16-18 old ages and 38.7 % get downing in the 13-15 age group. Of those respondents that foremost tried smoke before the age of 13, 71.9 % are current tobacco users. This equates to merely over one in 10 ( 10.2 % ) current tobacco users. By contrast, 46.7 % of those respondents who foremost tried smoke between the ages 19-24 remain as tobacco users ( 9.3 % of current tobacco users ) . Table Hazard factors for day-to-day smoke ( compared to non-daily smoke ) Daily tobacco users reported troubles with detecting no-smoking countries with 30.1 % sing trouble compared to 6.5 % of non-daily tobacco users. Unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios of pupils demoing those bothered by other people ‘s baccy fume are presented in Table Students bothered by people smoking nearby ( unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios ) . After seting for gender and state of beginning ( grouped by World Health Organisation Region ) , where a pupil does n't smoke they were 10 times more likely to mind if other people smoke nearby ( 95 % CI 6.6-16.6 ) and this is a important consequence ( P & lt ; 0.001 ) . After seting for the confusing consequence of the pupil smoke, females were 2.71 times more likely to mind if other people smoke close-by compared to males ( 95 % CI 1.76-4.18, P & lt ; 0.001 ) . Table Students bothered by people smoking nearby ( unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios )To look into pupils ‘ motive on discontinuing smokeAbout a 3rd of all current tobacco users did non place with being a tobacco user ( 32.4 % , n=73 ) . One-half of non-daily tobacco users ( 49.6 % , n=70 ) were in this group. Just under a one-fourth ( 23.1 % , n=52 ) of tobacco users reported being happy with being a tobacco user, though half of this group ( 51.9 % , n=27 ) felt that they ‘ought ‘ to halt smoke. Of those tobacco users who felt they ought to halt smoke ( 30.7 % , n=69 ) , 18.8 % wanted to halt smoke and 24.6 % felt they needed to halt smoke, with 15.9 % saying that they both wanted and needed to discontinue. Around a one-fourth of all tobacco users worried that smoke was either doing them injury now ( 22.2 % ) , with a farther 27.6 % worried that smoking would do them injury in the hereafter ( 14.2 % stated both ) ; nevertheless merely 6.7 % were concerned about t he consequence on household and loved 1s. A one-fourth ( 25.5 % ) of non-daily tobacco users thought smoke was n't presently doing serious injury. Remarks left by non-smokers cited wellness grounds for discontinuing or non taking up smoke. About a one-fourth ( 23.6 % , n=53 ) of tobacco users felt that smoke was bing excessively much money, the bulk of whom ( 69.8 % , n=37 ) were day-to-day tobacco users. Less than one in 10 tobacco users ( 8.4 % ) felt that smoke was acquiring excessively hard these yearss, this did non vary by smoking sub-category. Over two tierces of tobacco users intend to discontinue at some point ( 24.4 % were non certain when, 19.6 % when no longer a pupil, 13.3 % within the following month, 8.0 % within the following twelvemonth ) . Over a 5th bash non mean to give up ( 22.2 % ) , and 10.2 % did n't react to the inquiry. Within the group who responded that they did non mean to discontinue, 60 % ( n=30 ) had antecedently stated that they did non see themselves as tobacco users.Positions of pupils sing enforcement, success and range of smoke-free policyStudents were asked where they felt on a regular basis exposed to other people ‘s baccy fume. Over half felt exposed to tobacco fume in out-of-door smoking countries of pubs/restaurants/cafes ( 56.6 % ) and outside cabarets ( 55.5 % ) ; 35.8 % felt exposed in other out-of-door public topographic points. In many topographic points current tobacco users reported experiencing more exposed to other people ‘s fume than non-smokers. A bulk of respondents ( 70.9 % , n=416 ) felt that they were on a regular basis exposed to other people ‘s baccy fume on University premises. When broken down, 46.2 % ( n=271 ) experienced fume on the chief university campus ; 15.2 % ( n=89 ) outside the Student Union edifice ; 52.8 % ( n=310 ) outside University abodes and 17.9 % ( n=105 ) inside University abodes. These consequences are loosely similar regardless of smoking position. The bulk of occupants ( 67.6 % , n=397 ) believe that Leicester University has a policy that covers smoking in Halls of Residence. Ex-smokers ( 72.2 % , n=39 ) and current tobacco users ( 69.8 % , n=157 ) were more cognizant of the policy than non-smokers, 26.9 % ( n=83 ) of whom stated that they ‘do n't cognize ‘ . When asked about the smoke policy presently in force in Halls of Residence, merely 16.7 % ( n=98 ) were cognizant of the right combination of regulations stated ( i.e. no smoke indoors and within two meters of room accesss or Windowss ) . Almost three quarters ( 74.1 % , n=435 ) of occupants responded with at least one correct regulation ( 70.7 % stated that ‘smoking is non permitted indoors ‘ ) and 19.9 % ( n=117 ) thought the policy was more extended by taking extra regulations that they thought applied. One in 10 ( 9.9 % , n=58 ) respondents thought that smoke was non permitted on any portion of the site ( inside or out ) , 14.0 % ( n=82 ) were non cognizant of any regulations ( responded with ‘Do n't cognize ‘ ) and a really little figure ( 4.3 % , n=25 ) believed that smoke is permitted in indoor countries. Of the 60.9 % ( n=137 ) of tobacco users conflicting the smoke-free policy in Halls of Residence, the huge bulk ( 94.2 % , n=129 ) do so in the cognition that they are interrupting the regulations ( the staying 5.8 % believe smoke indoors is allowed ) . Three quarters ( 76.0 % , n=446 ) of respondents reported holding ne'er witnessed, or heard of, any active smoke policy enforcement in University adjustment, 10.4 % had witnessed grounds of enforcement and 6.1 % knew person else who had witnessed enforcement. Overall, 134 illustrations of active enforcement were reported: informal verbal warnings from staff accounted for 41.8 % ; formal verbal warnings 19.4 % ; remarks from other pupils 17.9 % ; and formal written warnings 16.4 % . A little figure ( 4.5 % ) of other enforcement actions were reported including: ‘no smoking ‘ postings ; emails to occupants reding of policy and countenances following dispute ; and mulcts. The adjustment a pupil lives in, the pupils smoking position and whether the pupil smokes in private and/or communal indoor countries are the independent forecasters of the hazard of being exposed to smoke inside university adjustment. Current tobacco users have an increased hazard, and are three and a half times more likely to be exposed to other peoples tobacco fume indoors at their university adjustment than ne'er tobacco users ( OR 3.54, 95 % CI 1.08-11.67 ) ( Table Students on a regular basis exposed to other peoples tobacco fume indoors at University Accommodation ) though this is non important overall ( p=0.13 ) . Students populating in Oadby abodes are more likely to be exposed to tobacco fume inside the abodes, those in self-catered adjustment in Oadby are about 3 times every bit likely to be exposed to other peoples tobacco fume ( OR 2.8, 95 % CI 1.56-5.04 ) and those in catered adjustment in Oadby are more than twice as likely to be exposed to other peoples smoke ( OR 2.14 , 95 % CI 1.25-3.66 ) and this is important ( p=0.001 ) . Students who smoke in survey sleeping rooms are 61.9 % less likely to be exposed to other peoples tobacco fume ( OR 0.38, 95 % CI 0.16-0.9, p=0.02 ) , and pupils who smoke in indoor communal countries are 4.66 times more likely to be exposed to other peoples tobacco fume ( OR 4.66, 95 % CI 2.01-10.84, P & lt ; 0.001 ) . The R2 value is 0.060 which means that the variables in the theoretical account explain about 6 % of the fluctuation in fume exposure. Table Students on a regular basis exposed to other peoples tobacco fume indoors at University AccommodationPositions on possible hereafter policy developmentOverall, 73.8 % of respondents thought that smoke should be banned wholly in survey sleeping rooms and 80.1 % in communal indoor countries ( Mistake: Reference beginning non found ) . Within current tobacco users, 54.2 % ( n=122 ) think that smoke should be banned wholly in survey sleeping rooms and 66.7 % stated that smoke should be banned wholly in indoor communal countries. This contrasts with the positions of non-smokers who were 86.4 % ( n=266 ) and 89 % in favor of prohibitions in sleeping rooms and communal countries severally. Almost three quarters of non-smokers ( 72.4 % ) said that smoke should be banned in entrance/doorways whilst 34.7 % of current tobacco users agreed. Smoking within two meters of room accesss polarised sentiment with 56.2 % ( n=173 ) of non-smokers stating that it should be banned wholly, whereas 48. 4 % ( n=167 ) of current tobacco users stated that it should be freely allowed. When asked whether smoking limitations should be applied to outdoor countries of the residential campus, 19.1 % of respondents expressed a penchant for a complete prohibition, with 40 % bespeaking that they thought it should be restricted to certain countries. Over half of current tobacco users ( 52.0 % , n=117 ) thought that smoking out-of-doorss should be freely allowed, whereas 48.1 % of non-smokers thought that it should be restricted to designated countries. Figure Student Support for Smoking Restrictions in University ResidencesDiscussionRestrictions of the surveyStudy designGiven the sensed acquaintance of current pupil cohorts with on-line engineerings, for illustration the usage of electronic mail ; practical acquisition environments ( WebCT, Blackboard49 etc. ) ; and the omnipresent usage of societal networking platforms such as Facebook, an on-line study was used to advance velocity and efficiency of completion and informations aggregation and easiness of distribution. A figure of restrictions were found with the method. The study platform used, though incorporating sophisticated tools and characteristics, involved the design of complex filtrating modus operandis to forestall the presentation of inappropriate inquiries to respondents, for illustration inquiries sing baccy ingestion to non-smokers. Any mistakes in the map of this filtrating non identified during proving, or as a consequence of proficient jobs during the study period may hold led to erroneous informations within the attendant dataset. Similarly, the standalone version of the questionnaire used on the tablet device relies on the proficient unity of the package to accurately synchronize responses to the on-line database. A thorough reappraisal of the informations collected, following closing of the study, did non place any such issues. The distribution of email invitations and links to the online study was undertaken by a 3rd party, the University of Leicester ‘s Residential and Commercial Services ( RACS ) section who hold the electronic mailing list for all occupants. The intended mark population for the study was a subset of this mailing list, as agreed with the RACS contact. However, when distributed, the invitation electronic mail was sent to the complete mailing list, more than duplicating the figure of receivers. This mistake did non present any jobs in footings of informations aggregation, nevertheless may hold introduced prejudices due to demographic fluctuations between residential sites. Further, the mailing list is used on the premise that the informations held on it is current and accurate at the clip of usage. Any motions of pupils between, in to or out of university adjustment which had non been updated on the mailing list may hold led to the electronic mail invitation being distributed to pupi ls outside the mark population, or non holding reached the whole of the residential cohort. Indeed, shortly following the analysis of the informations, the writer was informed that the mailing list did include a little figure of ineligible receivers, the remotion of whom from the denominator would hold increased the response rate to 18 % . Additionally, the easiness with which electronic mail can be forwarded may hold led to unintended receivers accessing the study. The eligibility inquiry sing current term clip abode within the study was designed to turn to this issue. There is a possibility that the response rate was affected by the method of invitation. Students receive legion electronic mails from the generic RACS electronic mail history throughout the term, frequently incorporating information which pupils may non see of import, which they may non open or read. As the invitation electronic mail was distributed from this history there is the possibility that some occupants may hold ignored the electronic mail and hence non considered finishing the study. Response prejudice may hold been introduced due to the nature of the study topic. Despite confidences of namelessness and confidentiality, some tobacco users may non hold responded to the study fearing that informations recorded sing dispute of smoke policy may take to negative effects. Both tobacco users and non-smokers may hold responded to the study in the belief that they may be able to well change the smoke policy.Study InstrumentThe length of the questionnaire used in the survey is an built-in restriction in footings of the comparison of informations to antecedently published surveies. The Health Survey for England46 includes a dedicated subdivision on smoking integrating about 50 inquiries to roll up elaborate informations. This degree of item is beyond the range of the current survey so the questionnaire was designed to arouse the informations required from a minimal figure of inquiries. This was besides designed to cut down study forsaking. As antecedently discussed, the leaning for denial of smoking position within peculiar groups is a restriction. The study questionnaire attempted to promote those whose immediate response to the inquiry of smoke position was ‘I have ne'er smoked ‘ to see if they had responded accurately by inquiring them to reaffirm their smoke position after careful consideration. Despite this attack, an component of prejudice may be within the informations. Similarly, ambiguity sing definitions of smoking position and ingestion may present prejudice into the informations, for illustration the response option ‘I have merely smoked one time or twice ‘ may be diversely interpreted as: ‘I have merely of all time smoked one or two coffin nails ‘ ; ‘I have smoked multiple coffin nails on one or two occasions ‘ ; or ‘I have smoked for one or two extended periods with a interruption in between ‘ . Smoking frequence and ingestion has an impact on classification of smoking position, and hence the reported smoke prevalence. For illustration in some surveies those respondents who smoke really infrequently may be classified as non-smokers as their smoke behavior does non make a specific threshold. In retrospect a figure of inquiries that were non included within the questionnaire would hold proved utile in the context of the survey. The questionnaire requests age, age at which the respondent foremost tried smoke and their current smoke position, nevertheless a inquiry sing the length of clip that current tobacco users have been smoking should hold been included as a step of smoking calling. Similarly, inquiries were asked of all respondents sing locations of exposure to smoke and whether exposure to tobacco fume bothered them, nevertheless a inquiry sing their association with tobacco users ( e.g. friends, flatmates etc. ) should hold been included as a step of potency increased likeliness of exposure to smoke. The timing of the study may hold introduced prejudices due to possible additions in smoking behavior over the Christmas holiday and through exam periods. A possible confounding factor within the analysis, non measured by the study, was the first twelvemonth undergraduate cohort in the 2011/12 academic twelvemonth. The 2011/12 twelvemonth represented the concluding academic session for beginning of surveies before significant rises in tuition fees within the UK Higher Education sector in 2012/13. The possibility exists hence for prejudice in the informations due to any possible demographic alterations to the cohort as a consequence of increased consumption of pupils from changing backgrounds including mature pupils, or those that may hold been be aftering spread old ages.Discussion of FindingssPrevalence of smoking within the pupil populationThe survey found an overall smoke prevalence within the sample pupil population to be 38.3 % , with fluctuation between work forces and adult females ( 42.7 % and 35.1 % severally ) . These rates were well higher than many reported in the literature ( 4 % -47 % ) 17, 19, 21, 27, 29 and about four t imes those estimated through the QMAS system used by the university linked GP surgery, which presently records smoke position for 59 % of patients. One possible contributory factor to this big disagreement is the designation of pupils as ‘smokers ‘ , within the context of societal smoke. In the survey, about one tierce of current tobacco users did non place themselves as being a tobacco user. If these respondents had indicated that they were non tobacco users, the overall rate of smoking prevalence would hold been reported as 25.9 % , still well higher than GP informations, but in line with rates found in the literature. Comparisons with the Health Survey for England ( HSE ) consequences, 201046 and the General Lifestyle study, 201050 show a much higher smoking prevalence in the pupil respondents at University of Leicester than might be expected. Interrupting the study informations down by age groups used in the HSE, the prevalence of smoke in males aged 16-24 is dual that in the HSE ( 22.0 % in the HSE in comparing to 44.1 % in the survey sample ) . The HSE informations would non include the occupants of pupil adjustment during term clip as the HSE does non include people â€Å" populating in establishments † as it is â€Å" designed to be representative of the population life in private families in England † 46. The General Lifestyle Survey, 201050 ( GLF ) publishes smoking prevalence by strias, gender and age group. Though the overall prevalence of smoke was much higher in the pupil study ( 38.3 % in comparing to 20 % ) , the proportion of heavy tobacco users was much lower overall and in each age class than in the GLF, 2010 ( merely one heavy tobacco user in the pupil study, male aged 20-24, in comparing to prevalence ‘s between 4 – 8 % in different age/sex groupings, in the GLF ) . A petition to Office for National statistics returned GLF 2010 informations ciphering national smoke prevalence in pupils at 14 % . Within the figures, heavy tobacco users recorded a prevalence of 2 % , compared with 0.2 % in the current survey.Smoking behavior and attitudesAbout half of respondents identified as current tobacco users were non-regular tobacco users. International pupils were well more likely to be day-to-day tobacco users than non-daily tobacco users. Non-daily tobacco users were m ore likely non to place themselves every bit tobacco users as discussed by Berg et al14, 23. The analysis besides suggests that those who start smoking at a younger age are more likely to go on to be a regular tobacco user, though the volume induction of smoke additions during university age groups as suggested in the literature14, 17, 18, 20-25. As a 1st twelvemonth undergraduate ( tobacco user ) commented: â€Å" This is the first twelvemonth I have tried smoke because my friends here do †Motivation on discontinuingMerely under one tierce of tobacco users thought they ought to discontinue smoke, whilst over 20 % stated that they do non mean to give up. About two tierces of those with no purpose to discontinue had stated that they did n't see themselves as tobacco users. This determination reflects the work by Moran et al33 and Berg et al14, 23 who besides found that those who did non see themselves to be tobacco users were less likely to show purpose to discontinue. As a 1st twelvemonth undergraduate ( tobacco user ) commented: â€Å" I do n't see the inquiry about giving up applicable to me as I do n't smoke every-day, merely when I ‘m with my friends in hall or out for the dark so I ‘m non a tobacco user † Indeed some respondents that potentially deny their smoke position were forthright in their sentiment that tobacco users should be left entirely to populate their lives. As a graduate student pupil, reported as being a tobacco user, commented: â€Å" Smokers ( I do non see myself one ) already have to set up with all kinds of bunk, merely go forth them entirely and give your clip and attempt to work outing existent problems.aˆÂ ¦ †Scope of policy, success and enforcementDespite the fact that no freedoms under the Smoke-free statute law have been made in the residential adjustment managed by University of L